Orchestral Instrumentation: Strings
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Orchestral Instrumentation: Strings
The string section is composed of four instrument sections. The orchestral sections are often referred to as choirs stemming from the organisation of the sounds, or rather the pitch range, of the different sections – from higher to lower: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. The equivalent sections of the strings are divided into violins, violas, cellos, and double basses, with the violin section itself divided into two sections. The string section of the orchestra was the first to become established and its precedence stems from a number of factors such as the huge pitch and dynamic range, the variety of articulations possible, and their continuity, i.e. a musician of the violin family can play without rest whereas those of the woodwinds and brass cannot play continuously without fatigue, especially at the extremes of the instrument ranges.
The violin family is so called due to the similarity in construction of the different instruments. Other than their size and corresponding sounds and ranges, they are nearly identical to each other consisting of the similar shaped hollow body and neck/fingerboard, with four strings tuned in fifths, except for the double bass which is tuned in fourths. The following shows the tunings and the ranges of each instrument.
The violin family instruments are nominally played using a bow, drawn across the strings to create the sound, although there are many different methods of bowing that produce different effects. Other articulations are possible without the use of the bow too, but more on this later. Most importantly it is necessary to appreciate the way in which the instruments of the violin family are played, in particular the bowing and phrasing of passages.
Down-bow is the stroke from the frog end (the gripped end of the bow) to the tip and the up-stroke is the reverse. Bowing considerations are important for unity between the strings and can greatly influence the music’s character. The tempo and dynamics of passages are key in decisions made regarding the bowing directions. Generally, non-legato passages require changes in bow direction with each note (détaché), whilst legato passages are played with one long bow movement. Double down or up bow movements can be required depending on the attack of the notes and the desired effect. Sustained notes will require change in bow direction but whether the note starts with an up or down bow movement should be decided by the tempo and the required attack on the note following it. It is also important to realise that a natural crescendo occurs when performing an up-stroke and vice versa. Equally important for the consideration of bowing and legato passages are the dynamic and tempo; the speed and pressure of a bow movement dictates the dynamics, quicker equating to louder, which limits the amount of notes that can be slurred together in one bow movement. It is also worth remembering that the cello and double bass bows are slightly shorter than those for the violin and viola.
The predominant sound of the strings in orchestral music also stems from the variety of different sounds that can be achieved with the strings. The string instruments can all perform a plethora of different articulations, some examples of which I shall very briefly list.
- Staccato – very short articulation (for moderate tempo)
- Marcato – heavy accent like sforzando; separated notes but the bow remains on the string
- Spiccato – staccato where the bow lightly bounces on the string
- Tremolo (bowed/fingered/undulating) – a sustained and regular rapid succession of notes
- Flautando – a soft “flute-like” tone produced by a light bowing, usually near the fingerboard (sul tasto)
- Sul ponticello – effect achieved by playing at or close to the bridge producing an airy (and sometime eerie) sound
- Col legno – using the wooden part of the bow; tratto – bowing action; battuto – bouncing action. The most famous example is perhaps Holst’s “Mars”
- Pizzicato – plucking of the strings; also left hand pizzicato and snap pizzicato (popping the string against the fingerboard); arpeggiated pizzicato which is like a strum action. Eg. Holiday For Strings by David Rose
There are a number of other effects that can be achieved, particularly con sordino, that is, the use of a mute which is fixed to the bridge and natural as well as artificial harmonics can be created.
Before composing and scoring for an orchestra, it is helpful to begin by studying some string chamber music and examples of how the string section is utilised. One of the greatest advantages of the string section apart from the variety of articulations, range, and dynamics is that it is the largest section of the orchestra in terms of musicians. Therefore, it is common to see “divisi” – the dividing of parts between different sections of the string family. The violin family instruments are able to play double-stops, that is, two notes on adjacent strings simultaneously. Triple-stops are also possible for louder passages and quadruple-stops can be performed by quickly arpeggiating across the strings. However, parts are often divided up between the instruments of each section by the “inside” and “outside” musicians on the same stand taking respective parts, or dividing by stand (da leggii).
In studying the string section and composing for it, it is useful to understand the timbres of each instrument and the sounds of their different registers. The instrumental sections of the violin family have all become important and equal to the first violin section. Registers overlap and it is helpful to study these to build knowledge of the palette available for different textures. I shall cover the basics of the violin in another article. Appreciating the way that a violin is played helps in creating good orchestral scores. Due to the tuning and fingering on the violin, it becomes apparent why many violin concertos are in keys such as A major or D major.
The volume of the violin family can make it easy to overlook another member of the string family which is used a great deal, a single instrument that has a range of over six octaves: the harp. Although it has endured some changes over the years, the commonly used harp consists of 47 strings tuned in Cb major. The pedals can raise the tuning by one semitone or by one tone and each pedal is responsible for one note over all octaves. A harpist plays by plucking the strings with all except the little fingers and one hand can stretch to a tenth easily. A commonly heard technique on the harp is the glissando. In notation, this is directed by specifying the start and end note and the tuning of the harp. The harp can also perform harmonics, however, they are very quiet.
The strings are really the characteristic sound that underlies the orchestra, ubiquitous throughout western classical music and film scores. As the orchestra has progressed, the other sections have come to hold more and more importance but the strings will always define the symphonic orchestra.
In the next articles I shall cover the other sections of the modern orchestra; the woodwinds, the brass, and the percussion. Thanks for reading and feel free to leave a comment and/or ask any questions below or in the forum.
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About The Author
Art Bailey
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Please note that all audio examples are synthesised – a greater appreciation of instrumentation and the tones can be gained by listening to actual recordings.
Fantastic article Art!
Everybody considering to write for string ensemble or simply looking to use strings in their music, this is a must read.
Ranges are great and your explanations help us all understand the role of each instrument.
Thanks Pedja.
I’d just like to add that this is just a small introduction to string instruments – in later articles I will go into greater detail regarding string arrangements and how to go about composing for strings. We’ll look at examples like classic love/romance themes as well as baroque chamber music.
That already promises another must read in my opinion. I definitely look forward to it Art!